本文發表於《大眾科學》的前部落格網路,僅反映作者的觀點,不一定反映《大眾科學》的觀點。
我曾在之前的多個場合說過,家養動物絕非不在四足動物動物園的範圍之外。相反,我發現它們非常有趣,並且我認為它們的 diversity(多樣性)、evolution(進化)和 behaviour(行為)是我們應該更多關注的事情。您現在閱讀的這篇文章是四足動物學播客(在播客宇宙中被稱為 TetZoopodcats)的一個奇怪的衍生品,並且專門涉及四足動物動物園的常客理查德·辛格向我們提出的一個問題。理查德問道,關於撒哈拉以南地區家馬的 diversity(多樣性),我們究竟瞭解多少? 這是一個很好的問題,因為我們所知道的知識很少被 synthesised(綜合),而且相當 obscure(晦澀)。雖然這個問題在播客中已經進行了相當長的討論,但我認為在這裡的部落格上寫出更多想法是合適的。
首先我應該說,對我來說,寫關於家馬品種及其歷史的文章變得越來越容易,因為我現在擁有相當多的關於這些主題的書籍。雖然這些書有非常明顯的 European(歐洲) (和 British(英國)) bias(偏見),但好訊息是,至少其中一些書確實討論了來自撒哈拉以南非洲等地區的品種。
非洲-突厥 origins(起源)。 大多數非洲馬品種都是以 Asia Minor(小亞細亞)和 Mediterranean fringes(地中海邊緣)為中心的 domestication event(馴化事件)的 derivatives(衍生物)。 據說這個 region(地區)過去 inhabited(居住)著 wild horses(野馬),一些 experts(專家)認為這些野馬屬於 subspecies(亞種)Equus caballus pumpelli,即非洲-突厥或 Oriental horse(東方馬)。 我真的想在這裡 avoid(避免)談論 pre-domestic horses(馴化前馬匹)和 domestication history(馴化歷史)(以及 taxonomy(分類學))的話題,因為它非常 complicated(複雜),而且有很多話要說。 我要說的是,horses(馬匹)似乎被 domesticated(馴化)了 several times(多次),來自 wild populations(野生種群),這些種群在 proportions(比例)和其他 characteristics(特徵)上 almost certainly(幾乎肯定)存在 differences(差異)。 但是,關於 domestic breeds(家馬品種)中看到的一些 main differences(主要差異) reflect(反映)了其 wild ancestors(野生祖先)中 present(存在)的 differences(差異)的 idea(觀點), somewhat controversial(有些爭議)。
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無論如何,看起來是 Afro-Turkic(非洲-突厥)/Oriental extraction(東方血統)的 breeds(品種)是 short- and fine-haired(短而細毛)、thin-maned(鬃毛稀疏)、slender-limbed horses(肢體纖細的馬)。 它們有 proportionally long ears(比例較長的耳朵)和一個 bulging forehead region(凸出的前額區域),這 apparently(顯然) reflects(反映)了 large frontal sinuses(大型額竇)的 presence(存在) (Bennett 2008)。 Among(在……之中) the forms arising(產生的形式) from the domestication(馴化) of these animals(這些動物) are the several forms(幾種形式) of north Africa(北非) – of Libya(利比亞), Algeria(阿爾及利亞), Morocco(摩洛哥) and so on(等等) – collectively termed(統稱為) Barb horses(巴布馬)。
Barb horses(巴布馬) and the Iberian connection(和伊比利亞的聯絡)。 Most comments made(大多數評論) about the anatomy(解剖結構) and appearance(外觀) of the Barb(巴布馬) are vague(模糊) and generalised(籠統)。 This is a long-headed(頭長), long-legged horse(腿長的馬) with flat shoulders(肩部平坦), a low-set tail(尾根低垂) and sloping hindquarters(後軀傾斜), and it can be virtually any shade of brown(棕色), black(黑色) or grey(灰色)。 It is sometimes 15 hands(手 (馬匹高度單位)) (1.5 m) at the withers(肩隆) and has a strongly up-turned neck base(強烈向上彎曲的頸根), giving it a very erect neck carriage(非常挺拔的頸部姿勢)。 Some sources(一些資料來源) say that Barbs(巴布馬) have the bulging forehead(凸出的前額) and somewhat concave dorsal margin of the face(略微凹陷的面部背面邊緣) typical(典型的) for Afro-Turkic horses(非洲-突厥馬) (Goodall 1965), while others(而另一些人) say that a Barb(巴布馬) has a straight or even slightly convex facial profile(筆直甚至略微凸起的面部輪廓) (Bennett 2008)。
Barbs(巴布馬) are said to be extremely tough(非常強壯), docile(溫順) and hardy(耐寒)。 They’ve repeatedly been crossed(它們曾多次雜交) with Arab horses(阿拉伯馬), so much so that a large pool of hybrids(大量的雜交品種) now exists(現在存在), and several Barb strains(幾個巴布馬品系) have been bred(已被培育出來)。 A form(一種型別) with a Roman-nosed appearance(羅馬鼻外觀) is associated(與……有關) with Tripoli(的黎波里), and smaller-bodied versions(體型較小的版本) have been bred(已被培育出來) in mountainous parts(山區) of Algeria(阿爾及利亞) and Morocco(摩洛哥)。 One hybrid population(一個雜交種群), mostly associated(主要與……有關) with Libya(利比亞), has a distinctive-enough look(具有足夠獨特的面貌) that it’s treated as a distinct breed(被視為一個獨特的品種), the Libyan barb(利比亞巴布馬) or North African horse(北非馬)。 [下圖來源:Notwist。]
Barb horses(巴布馬) were taken(被帶到) to Spain(西班牙) at some point(在某個時候)。 This is often thought(人們通常認為) to have happened(發生) as a consequence(結果) of the 8th century invasion of Iberia(8世紀入侵伊比利亞半島) by the Moors(摩爾人), and these horses(這些馬) have apparently had a major influence(顯然產生了重大影響) on Iberian horse diversity(伊比利亞馬的多樣性)。 From here(從這裡), they were taken(它們被帶到) to South America(南美洲) where breeds like the Argentine Criollo(阿根廷克里奧羅馬), Puerto Rican Paso Fino(波多黎各帕索菲諾馬) and Marchador(曼加拉加馬) are apparently derived from them(顯然都起源於它們)。 I should also note briefly(我還應該簡要指出) that Barbs(巴布馬) may have originated(可能起源於) in Spain(西班牙) in the first place(最初), an idea(一種觀點) which is consistent(與……相符) with archaeological and genetic data(考古和遺傳資料) suggesting(表明) that the Iberian Peninsula(伊比利亞半島) was both a Pleistocene refuge(更新世避難所) for wild horses(野馬), and a domestication centre(馴化中心) for animals that were later taken around the Mediterranean fringes(地中海邊緣) and across northern Africa(整個北非地區) (Jansen et al. 2002, Lopes et al. 2005, Cieslak et al. 2010)。
Nigerian(奈及利亞) and Dongola horses(和棟哥拉馬)。 At some point(在某個時候), Barb horses(巴布馬) were taken south(被帶到南部) to Nigeria(奈及利亞), and here the variable(可變的) and poorly known(鮮為人知的) Nigerian horse(奈及利亞馬) arose(由此產生)。 It has powerful shoulders(它具有強壯的肩部) and lightly built hindquarters(輕巧的後軀)。 Animals I’ve seen in photos(我在照片中看到的動物) have a gently bulging forehead(略微凸出的前額) and slightly concave dorsal face profile(略微凹陷的背面面部輪廓) like that seen in North African Barbs(與北非巴布馬相似)。 14-14.2 hands(手高) is about typical(是典型的身高)。
Another African horse(另一種非洲馬) that’s partly derived(部分源自) from Barbs(巴布馬) taken southwards(南部) is the Dongola(棟哥拉馬) or Dongolawi(棟哥拉維馬), said to have originated(據說起源於) in the Dongola Province(棟哥拉省) of Sudan(蘇丹) (Hendricks 2007)。 However(然而), it’s also seems to incorporate genes(似乎也融入了基因) from horses imported(進口) from Iberia(伊比利亞半島) that came via Egypt(經埃及進口), with the ultimate origin(最終起源) of those Iberian horses(那些伊比利亞馬) being ancient Numidia(古代努米底亞) (Hendricks 2007)。 The Dongola(棟哥拉馬) is apparently most abundant(顯然最為豐富) in northern Cameroon(喀麥隆北部)。 These horses(這些馬) tend to be reddish(往往呈紅棕色), but bay(栗色) and black animals(黑色動物) are common too(也很常見)。 Many comments made(許多評論) about the Dongola(棟哥拉馬) have a negative connotation(帶有負面含義): it’s described(它被描述為) as having thin legs(腿細), a proportionally big(比例大), dorsally convex(背面凸起) and unattractive head(難看的頭部), a flat croup (= rump)(平坦的尻部(= 臀部)), and a long back(背部長)。 I think that these characterisations(我認為這些描述) are often unfair(往往是不公平的) since they compare these breeds(因為它們將這些品種進行比較) to ‘ideal’ westernised breeds(“理想”的西方化品種) like the Thoroughbred(如純種馬)。
Over the years(多年來), Dongola horses(棟哥拉馬) have been extensively crossed(已被廣泛雜交) with Arabs(阿拉伯馬), Barbs(巴布馬) and Arab-Barb crosses(阿拉伯-巴布雜交品種)。 Hendricks (2007) refers to(提到了) the degeneration of quality(質量的下降) in this breed(在該品種中) and a 19th century concern(19世紀的擔憂) that it was nearing extinction(它瀕臨滅絕)。 Dongola horses(棟哥拉馬) were used(被使用) in the Italian-Abyssinian War(意阿戰爭) of 1895-1896, and were also exported(也被出口) to Ireland(愛爾蘭)。 These sorts of movements(這些型別的運動) give some illustration(在一定程度上說明) of why domestic horse genetics(家馬遺傳學) – and the relationships that have been recovered between the many breeds(在許多品種之間恢復的關係) – are so complex(如此複雜)。
The Fulani(富拉尼) and other west and central African horses(和其他西部和中部非洲馬)。 Several very similar breeds or strains(幾種非常相似的品種或品系) exist(存在) across west and central Africa(整個西部和中部非洲地區)。 They include the Fulani(它們包括富拉尼馬), the Bahr-el-Ghazal(加扎勒河馬) of Chad(查德), the Hausa(豪薩馬) and Bornu(博爾努馬) of Nigeria(奈及利亞), and the Bandiagara(邦迪加拉馬), Djerma(傑爾馬馬), Mossi(莫西馬), Songhai(桑海馬) and Yagha(亞加馬) of the great ‘bend region’ of the Niger River(尼日河大“彎曲地區”) (Hendricks 2007)。 These horses(這些馬) might all be regarded as strains(可能都被視為品系) of the Dongola(棟哥拉馬) (and collectively lumped together(並統稱為) as West African Dongola(西非棟哥拉馬)), or they might be regarded as distinct breeds(或者它們可能被視為獨特的品種)。 Differentiating ‘strains’ and ‘breeds’(區分“品系”和“品種”) in domestic animals(在家養動物中) is often very subjective(通常非常主觀), and it’s made messy(這使得區分變得混亂) by the fact that many populations are hybrid swarms(許多種群是雜交蜂群), or made distinct(或變得獨特) by a cultural role or function(文化角色或功能) more than by genetics(遺傳) or anatomy(解剖結構)。
The Fulani horse(富拉尼馬) is associated(與……有關) with Cameroon(喀麥隆) and the nomadic Fulani people(遊牧的富拉尼人)。 Fulani horses(富拉尼馬) are small and hardy(體型小巧而耐寒), they’re highly variable in colour(顏色變化很大), and they have features indicative(它們具有表明……的特徵) of an Afro-Turkic(非洲-突厥)/Oriental ancestry(東方血統)。 Pictures show(圖片顯示) a long, narrow face(狹長的面部), slender proportions overall(整體纖細的比例) and a function(功能) as both a pack and saddle horse(馱馬和鞍馬)。
However(然而), genetic data reveals(遺傳資料揭示) complex relatedness(複雜的相關性) at some level(在一定程度上) to Anatolian horses(安納托利亞馬), the Cheju horses(濟州馬) of far eastern Asia(遠東亞洲), the Portugese Lusitano(葡萄牙盧西塔諾馬) and famous Lipizzan or Lipizzaner horses(著名的利比扎馬或利皮扎納馬) of Austria(奧地利), and Arabs too(以及阿拉伯馬) (Lopes et al. 2005)。 I don’t know whether this sharing of genetic data(我不知道這種共享遺傳資料) with such widely dispersed breeds(與如此廣泛分佈的品種) is typical(是否典型) of African horses(非洲馬) but it should be said(但應該說) that many horses(許多馬), when analysed in this way(當以這種方式分析時), reveal genetic affinities(揭示遺傳親緣關係) with surprisingly distant breeds(與出人意料的遙遠品種)。 Again(再次), it paints a picture(它描繪了一幅圖景) of substantial movement of horse breeds(馬品種的大量遷移), and a long and complex history(漫長而複雜的歷史) of hybridisation and introgression(雜交和滲入) (Cieslak et al. 2010)。
Adding to the complexity(使……更加複雜) of the horse story(馬匹故事) in west and central Africa(西部和中部非洲) is the idea(是這樣一種觀點) that the horses of this region(該地區的馬匹) – derived from north African(源自北非), Barb-type animals(巴布型動物) – lived feral(野生生活) for a while(一段時間) and (1) became dwarfed(變得矮小) as a consequence of natural selection(作為自然選擇的結果), (2) evolved partial resistance(進化出區域性抵抗力) to trypanosomiasis(錐蟲病), and (3) became more adaptable(變得更具適應性) as goes dietary requirements and feeding behaviour(在飲食要求和攝食行為方面)。 A surprising amount(令人驚訝的數量) has been written(已被撰寫) about these horses(關於這些馬) and several authors(幾位作者) have implied or argued(暗示或認為) that they should be regarded as a distinct race(它們應該被視為一個獨特的種族), “quite distinct(截然不同) from the Oriental(東方馬), Barb(巴布馬) and Dongola horses(棟哥拉馬)” (Blench 1993, p. 89)。 They really can be very small(它們確實可以非常小), with shoulder heights(肩高) of 90-110 cm in cases(在某些情況下)。 Linguistic data(語言資料), rock art(巖畫) and historical accounts(歷史記載) indicate(表明) that these animals(這些動物) have been in west Africa(在西非) for some considerable time(相當長一段時間), perhaps for 1000 years or more(可能已經有 1000 年或更長時間)。
In fact(事實上), it’s obvious(很明顯) that “[t]he importance of ponies(小馬的重要性) in west Africa(在西非) has been seriously underestimated(已被嚴重低估) because the process of replacement(取代的過程) by the larger and more prestigious horses(更大、更負盛名的馬匹) brought across the desert(被沙漠帶來的) was already advanced(已經很深入) during the period when the first observers were writing(當第一批觀察者寫作時)” (Blench 1993, p. 103)。 Horses have been – and are – far more abundant(馬匹過去和現在都更加豐富), more diverse(更加多樣化), and more important(更加重要) in tropical Africa(熱帶非洲) than the majority of us think(比我們大多數人認為的)。
Plateau ponies(高原小馬) of Nigeria(奈及利亞), war ponies(戰馬) of Chad and Cameroon(查德和喀麥隆)。 Several groups of people(幾個群體的人民) in what is now Nigeria(現在的奈及利亞), Cameroon(喀麥隆), Chad(查德) and elsewhere in western and central Africa(西部和中部非洲其他地區) are recorded as using and breeding horses(有記錄表明他們使用和飼養馬匹), and of using them extensively in battle(並將它們廣泛用於戰鬥)。 Indeed(事實上), there’s good evidence(有充分的證據) that the use of horses(馬匹的使用) was key(是關鍵) in the military and political patterns(軍事和政治格局) of the region(該地區) (Blench 1993)。 The Chamba people(昌巴人) of Cameroon and Nigeria(喀麥隆和奈及利亞) used a horse(使用一種馬) – seemingly known only as the Chamba pony(似乎只被稱為昌巴小馬) – in raids and attacks(在襲擊和攻擊中), while the Nigerian Irigwe people(奈及利亞伊裡格韋人) apparently exchanged(顯然交換了) their small, pony-type horses(他們的小型小馬型馬匹) for larger, north African-type ones(更大的北非型馬匹) at some point during the 19th century(在19世紀的某個時候) and thereby improved(從而提高了) their aggressive capabilities(他們的攻擊能力)。
In Chad(在查德), the powerful Baguirmi Kingdom(強大的巴吉爾米王國) used mounted cavalry(使用了騎兵), equipped with quilted armour(配備了絎縫盔甲) worn over leather and chainmail(穿在皮革和鎖子甲上), during the 18th century at least(至少在18世紀), and armoured horses(裝甲馬) were in fact used extensively(事實上得到廣泛使用) across central and eastern Sudanic Africa(整個蘇丹中部和東部非洲地區)。 Ceremonial use(儀式性使用) of these armoured horses(這些裝甲馬) persists today(至今仍然存在)。 The armour(盔甲) is often brightly coloured(通常色彩鮮豔) and spectacular(壯觀)。
Plateau State(高原州) in Nigeria(奈及利亞) was inhabited(居住著) by people with a rich and interesting horse-based culture(擁有豐富而有趣的馬匹文化的民族)。 Horses were ridden in war(馬匹被用於戰爭), and were used as bridewealth payments(被用作彩禮), in ceremony(在儀式中), and as indications of wealth(以及財富的象徵)。 The Piti people(皮蒂人) of Nigeria(奈及利亞) also used(也使用) their small hill ponies(他們的小山地小馬) when hunting game(狩獵時)。 Sadly(可悲的是), all of these animals(所有這些動物) seem to have declined substantially(似乎都大幅減少) in recent decades(近幾十年), with a 1990 survey finding(1990年的一項調查發現) only three in use(只有三匹還在使用) among one of the relevant ethnic groups(相關的民族群體之一) (Blench 1993)。
A remarkable tradition(一種非凡的傳統) apparently used(顯然使用) by people across the region(該地區的人們) concerns the deliberate cutting(涉及故意割開) of the horse’s back(馬的背部) such that it bled(使其流血), the clotting blood(凝結的血液) then being used(然後被用作) as an adhesive(粘合劑) to help the (bareback) rider((無鞍)騎手) stay in place(保持在位)。 Blench (1993) quoted(引用了) Kumm (1910) on this(在這方面), and noted(並指出) that it seemed so bizarre (and cruel)(這似乎非常離奇(且殘酷)) that it would ordinarily be worthy of dismissal(以至於通常會被認為是不值得一提的) as a traveller’s tale(旅行者故事)。 However(然而), it was mentioned repeatedly(它被多次提到) by those who visited the region(訪問該地區的人們) between the 1850s and 1940s(在1850年代至1940年代之間)。 Some authors provided extra information(一些作者提供了額外的資訊), saying that the skin was opened(稱皮膚被開啟) on the back(在背部) such that a swollen pad(從而形成了一個腫脹的墊子) (and eventually a giant roughened area of scar tissue(最終形成了一個巨大的粗糙的疤痕組織區域)) formed(形成) and functioned(並充當功能) as a sort of built-in saddle(一種內建鞍座)。
Lest we think(為了避免我們認為) that people abused or did not value their horses(人們虐待或不重視他們的馬匹), Kumm and other writers(Kumm和其他作家) also described(也描述了) the close bonds(密切聯絡) that were observed(被觀察到的)。 A Berom man(一位貝羅姆人) (the Berom or Birom(貝羅姆人或比羅姆人) are indigeous(是土著) to the Jos Plateau(喬斯高原) in Nigeria(奈及利亞)) was quoted as saying(被引用說) “A horse is like a man(馬就像人一樣); you send it out to bring a tired man home(你派它出去把疲憊的人帶回家), you give it water to drink(你給它水喝), you walk miles to find it grass to eat(你走幾英里去尋找草給它吃), it carries you to hunt and to war(它馱著你去狩獵和戰爭), when it is tired you dismount(當它累了,你就下馬) and carry your load on your own head(自己扛著你的負重)。 When you die(當你去世時), and they lead it towards your grave(當他們牽著它走向你的墳墓時), its spirit may fly out of its body(它的靈魂可能會飛出它的身體) in its anxiety to find you(出於對找到你的渴望)” (Isichei 1982, p. 23-24)。 Ponies kept by the Berom(貝羅姆人飼養的小馬) were killed(被殺死) when their owner died(在其主人去世時) and the corpse(屍體) was then wrapped in the skin(然後被裹在馬皮中) (Davies, in Blench 1993)。
Blench (1993) recounted(敘述了) Maistre’s 1895 writings(Maistre 1895 年的著作) on the use of horses(關於馬匹的使用) by the Gaberi people(加貝里人) of Cameroon(喀麥隆) who used ‘Sara’ or ‘Laka’ horses(他們使用“薩拉”或“拉卡”馬) when attacking and raiding(在攻擊和襲擊時)。 Axes(斧頭), spears(長矛), saddles(鞍座) and bits and reins(嚼子和韁繩) were used(被使用) by these people(這些人) as they rode(當他們騎馬時), and Maistre apparently featured(Maistre 顯然展示了) a remarkable image(一幅引人注目的影像) where Gaberi warriors(加貝里戰士), crossing the Logone River(渡過洛貢河) in canoes(乘坐獨木舟), are leading their swimming horses behind them(並帶領他們游泳的馬匹在他們身後) (Blench 1993)。 Maistre also referred to(Maistre 還提到了) the sight(景象) of 3000-4000 Gaberi warriors(3000-4000 名加貝里戰士), about one-third of which were mounted(其中約三分之一是騎馬的), so they apparently owned a great many horses(因此他們顯然擁有大量的馬匹)。
Ponies of the far south(遙遠南方的矮種馬)。 What about far southern Africa(遙遠的南部非洲呢)? We’ll begin with(我們將從……開始) the Basutoland pony or Basuto pony(巴蘇陀蘭小馬或巴蘇陀小馬), a small, thickset(小型、粗壯), hardy horse(耐寒的馬) associated with Lesotho(與賴索托有關) (formerly known as Basutoland(以前稱為巴蘇陀蘭))。 It’s apparently has exceptionally hard hooves(它顯然具有非常堅硬的蹄子), relatively short legs(相對較短的腿) and a longish back(較長的背部) (Goodall 1963)。 These features(這些特徵) are all related(都與……有關) to its sure-footedness(它的穩健性) on rough, rocky terrain(崎嶇不平的岩石地形), and it’s this characteristic(正是這一特性) which had made the Basuto(使巴蘇陀小馬成為) a popular and reliable horse(受歡迎且可靠的馬) used extensively(廣泛使用) during the Boer War(布林戰爭)。 The Basuto(巴蘇陀小馬) seems to have originated(似乎起源於) as a cross(雜交品種) between Arab(阿拉伯馬), Persian(波斯馬) and Thoroughbred horses(純種馬) during the middle of the 17th century(17世紀中期) and to have been brought(被帶來) to southern Africa(南部非洲) by Dutch and Portugese people(荷蘭人和葡萄牙人)。 It seems to be the same animal(它似乎是同一種動物) as that originally called the Cape horse(與最初被稱為開普敦馬的動物)。 I mean to write about Boer War horse memorials(我打算寫關於布林戰爭馬匹紀念碑的文章) at some stage(在某個階段)。
It should also be noted(還應該指出的是) that southern African(南部非洲) is home to(是……的故鄉) the South African miniature(南非迷你馬), a light draft riding horse(輕型役用騎乘馬) less than 90 cm tall at the withers(肩高不到 90 釐米)。 The origins and history(起源和歷史) of miniature horses(迷你馬) is confusing(令人困惑), in part because people have crossed small individuals(部分原因是人們將小型個體雜交) of many breeds(許多品種) to create small-stature animals(創造矮身材的動物)。 In cases(在某些情況下), they have therefore created hybrids(它們因此創造了雜交品種) that exhibit features(表現出特徵) of several larger horse breeds(幾種大型馬品種)。 Indeed(事實上), the South African miniature(南非迷你馬) comes in forms(有多種形式) that are essentially miniature Arabs(本質上是迷你阿拉伯馬) as well as miniature draft horses(以及迷你役用馬)。
Various other horse breeds(其他各種馬品種) are associated(與……有關) with South Africa(南非)。 Incidentally(順便說一句), there’s also a Madagascar pony(還有一種馬達加斯加小馬), an animal that I’ll have to discuss some other time(這是一種我必須在其他時候討論的動物)。
Namib horses(奈米布馬)。 Finally(最後), I have to make mention of(我不得不提到) an enigmatic group(一個神秘的群體) of feral, wild-living, desert-dwelling horses(野生、野外生活、沙漠居住的馬匹): the Namib Desert horses(奈米布沙漠馬)。 Genetic data shows(遺傳資料顯示) that these are Afro-Turkic(非洲-突厥)/Oriental horses(東方馬) with a distant affinity(具有遙遠親緣關係) with the Arab(與阿拉伯馬), though they are genetically quite distinct(儘管它們在基因上非常獨特) and with a very low amount of variation(且變異程度非常低) (Cothran et al. 2001)。 They probably descend from(它們可能起源於) horses imported(進口) to the region(到該地區) for military purposes(軍事目的) and don’t have (contra some ideas on their origins)(並且(與關於其起源的一些觀點相反)沒有任何) any direct links(直接聯絡) to Basuto ponies(巴蘇陀小馬) used by endemic people(地方性人民使用的)。 [鄰近照片來源:Gerald de Beer。]
There are some indications(有一些跡象表明) that Namib horses(奈米布馬) have evolved a few specialisations(已經進化出一些特殊性) for desert life(適應沙漠生活) over their short period(在它們短暫的時期) (less than 100 years) of living feral((不到 100 年)野生生活), since they’re seemingly better at conserving water(因為它們似乎更善於節約用水) than other domestic horses(比其他家馬)。 They’re predated upon by(它們被……捕食) Spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta(斑鬣狗 Crocuta crocuta)。 [下圖由 Sven-Eric Kanzler 上傳。]
Here in Europe(在歐洲), (and elsewhere, I’m sure(以及其他地方,我確信)) we tend not to associate horses with Africa(我們往往不會將馬匹與非洲聯絡起來), and we also tend to be tremendously naive(而且我們也往往非常幼稚) as goes the use and role of horses in African culture and ceremony(在非洲文化和儀式中馬匹的用途和作用方面)。 I don’t know anywhere near as much as I might like(我所知的遠不及我想要的那麼多), but the few sources I’ve consulted show(但我查閱的一些資料表明) that western, central and southern Africa(西部、中部和南部非洲) at least have a rich and diverse history of equestrianism(至少具有豐富多樣的馬術歷史)。 Horses have also been used extensively in war(馬匹也被廣泛用於戰爭), in ceremonial fashion(在儀式性場合) or as working or riding animals(或作為役用或騎乘動物) in many African countries(在許多非洲國家) even well south of the Sahara(即使在撒哈拉以南)。 Furthermore(此外), there’s a fascinating (and little written-about) history(存在一個令人著迷的(且鮮有記載的)歷史) of horse trading, translocation and breeding(馬匹貿易、遷移和育種), that’s intertwined(它交織在一起) with the history of many African peoples(與許多非洲民族的歷史)。 There are many spinoffs(有很多衍生話題) of this discussion(關於這次討論) that I aim to return to in time(我打算在以後再回到這些話題)。
有關之前四足動物動物園關於馬匹的文章,請參閱…
倫敦格蘭特動物學博物館一日遊(包括對斑驢和其他斑馬的討論)
參考資料 – -
Bennett, D. 2008. The origin and relationships of the Mustang, Barb, and Arabian horse.
Blench, R. 1993. Ethnographic and linguistic evidence for the prehistory of African ruminant livestock, horses and ponies. In Andah, B., Okpoko, A., Shaw, C. & Sinclair, P. (eds) The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. Routledge, New York, pp. 71-103.
Cothran, E. G., van Dyk, E. & van der Merwe, F. J. 2001. Genetic variation in the feral horses of the Namib Desert, Namibia. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 72, 18-22.
Goodall, D. M. 1965. Horses of the World. Country Life Ltd., London.
Hendricks, B. L. 2007. International Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Isichei, E. 1982. Introduction. In Isichei, E (ed) Studies in the History of Plateau State, Nigeria. Macmillan, London, p. 1-57.
Jansen, T., Forster, P., Levine, M. A., Oelke, H., Hurles, M., Renfrew, C., Weber, J. & Olek, K. 2002. Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99, 10905-10910.
Kumm, K. 1910. From Hausaland to Egypt, Though to Sudan. Constable, London.
Lopes, M. S., Mendon?a, D., Cymbron, T., Valera, M., da Costa-Ferreira, J. & da C?mara Machado, A. 2005. The Lusitano horse maternal lineage based on mitochondrial D-loop sequence variation. Animal Genetics 36, 196-202.